53 HH*@ÿñÿ÷9I*xÞ,, / `d'ÿÂÿÚ m †€,<J€T€9 9 91c91c( ý€33€ 0ÿÿ/ 6 Û{HHfessional bodies, teachers and social workers' trade unions, etc. There are only two seats for workers' unions and one seat each for elections from ugA×–¾’©‘ÌRyumin-Light-83pv-RKSJ-HPalatinoPalatino-RomanAA’†ƒSƒVƒbƒN‚a‚a‚aChuGothicBBB-Medium„A0dMA(dN(dAA0dAA$dAA$ddÿÿÿÿ ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ. ÿÿÿÿ.ÿÿÿÿ ÿÿÿÿ.ÿÓíP      !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCÿ&WOMEN IN HONG KONG Introduction 1. Hong Kong is a British dependent territory ceded from China in late last century. Under the agreement reached by two government in 1984, China will resume soveriengty over Hong Kong on 1 July 1997. Hong Knog will then become a Special Administrative Region under the People's Republic of China. 2. With a population of nealy siz million, HOng Kong is well-known internarionally as one of the gFour Little Dragons", an economic miracle which has achieved as enviable record of economic growth over the past decades. Gross Domestic Product of Hong Kong at current prices(HK$million) Total per capita 1971 25,178 6,224 1981 164,973 31,827 1986 291,897 52,759 1991 642,930 111,721 3. Until recently, Hong Kong has been obsessed with the economic side of development with little attention on the non-material aspects of life. On the one hand, economic development has rapidlke improved the material well-being of the population in general. On the other hand, economic success had been interpreted by the Government and the business community as the result of Government's laissez-faire policy. Demands by social and political groups for government regulations over economic activities and for an enhanced government role in the social shere have been met with stauch resistance. The myths of meritocracy and free competition are widely believed. People who cannnot make it are seen as personal failures. Strucrtual discriminsation and inequality are seldom questioned. 4. The situation was reinforced by the elicit decision-making sutucture where members of the Executive Council (Exco, to advise the Governer on policy matters) and the Legislative Council (LegCo) had been constituted by appointments composed largely of business and professional interests who were the benefactors of the status quo. Partial elections with highly restricted electoral franchaise were introduced into the LegCo in 1985. It was not untill 1991 that we had geographically-based direct elections by universal suffrage for less than one-third of the LegCo seats. 5. The hitherto apolitical population have undergone rapid politiccisation over the past decade. The catalyst for change began in the 1980s when the Chinese and British government began talks on the future of Hong Knog which concluded with the Sino-British Joint Declaration in September 1984. Resumption of Chinese sovereignty over Hong Kong on 1 July 1997 was confirmed. In the years following the signing of the Joint Declaration, Hong Kong was busy seeing the drafting of the Basic Law, the constitution for Hong Kong after 1 July 1997. Hong Kong people were anxious to preserve their way of life and the socio-economic system they so tresured. The promise of gOne Country, Two Systems" and giving Hong Kong the status of a special administrative region(SAR) with high degree of autonomy by the Chinese government were intended to assure the people of Hong Kong over its future. 6. Since then, democratic development took off with a view to Hong Kong people geverning Hong Kong after 1997. Organised electoral politics began to take shape in Hong Kong. Moreover, the drafting of the Basic Law between 1985 and 1990 was itself a politicising process and differnt interst groups made use of the exercise to advance ther rights. 7. Nevertheless, there are people who find the future uncertain ane decide to emigrate. The gconfidence crisis" was especially serious after the June-Fourth Incident in China. Large number of middle and upper class people decide to emigrate and to aquire a foreign passport as gpolitical insurance" has caused various social problens. For example, family emigratinf may choose to satisfy the residence requirement of emigration by haaving rhe wife (whose career had traditionally veen seen as secondary to family responsibilities) and children to land while the husband continues his job or business in Hong Kong. Prolonged separation of husbands and wives have greatly affected marriage life and for some have resulted in broken marriages. 8. On the other hand, economic transformation and changes in population structure as a result of decreasing birth rates have also brought changes to the society. Because of the ever increasing costs of land and human resources, Hong Kong is no longer competetive for its manufacturing products. The economy has since 1980s shifted its emphasis to service industries, while manufacturing industries have been gradually relocated across the border to mainland China to make use of the low labour costs there. Economic restructuring has taken the jobs of many unskilled labour, notably women-dominated textile and garment industries. However, employers complain of lbour shortage and lobby for the importation of labour from China. Because of this imported competition, the effect is that women who are unskilled or who have a break in thier working life, most oftern for child rearring, will have enormous difficulties finding a job. Women are also discriminated against for their age - it is also difficult for women to find jobs when they are over the age of 30. 9. Large scale relocation of manufacturing plants to China has created the need for supervisors and management staff fron Hong Kong. Because of the need for travel and stay in China, most employers prefer having male employees to take up the jobs. Men station in China are tempted to have affairs with women in the Mainland. There are instances when married men have mistresses in China while their wives in Hong Kong are kept in the dark. 10. Increased cross-border activities have given rise to many other social p:henomina as well, e.g. women takinf advantages of the relatively cheap abortion facilities in China, the marriage trade in which poor chinese girls marry Hong Kong men for economic betterment, the infamous exploitation of Chinese workers by Hong Kong and foreign investers, etc. 11. At a time of turbulent changes, Hong Kong has a lot to do adjust itself. On the one hand, many changes as mentioned above have reinforced the traditional role of women, On the other handm the escalating conflicts women feel avout their role and status in society has helped promote feminist consciousness and organised claimes for their rights. In the following sections, we shall elavorate in greater detail the situation of women in Hong Kong. The impact of Economic Development on Hong Kong Women 12. Hong Kong is regarded as a developed country but women from differnt sectors are still suffering from different kinds of sex discriminaiton. According to the government, women in the labour force enjoy the same rights as men and are free to take up the job of their choices. However, many grassroots women who are less educated face difficulties to find a place in the job market. Even for women who are more educated, they still suffer from gender discrimination in other respects. 13. Economic development in the past few decades has provided job oppotunities for many including women. Untill late 1980s, ther had been a consistent increase of labour participation rate for women which had contributed to an improved status of women in society. However, changes in recent years have brought new problems to women. Labour Participation Rates % 1961 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 women 36.8@42.8 43.6 49.5 51.2 49.5 men 90.4 84.7 80.4 82.5 80.9 78.7 Facors Inhibiting Women's partcipation in the Labour Force 14. Sex-role division of labour is still prevent in Hong Kong. Women are often responsibile for househole work and looking after children while men are seen as the bread-winners. Many women are deprived of the choice to work in society. According to government statistics, lazour particip:ation rate for those women aged 20-24 years old was 83% in 1991. The lavour participation rate for those women aged years ole and 35-39 were 60% and 56% respectively. It reveals how momen are affected by the child-bearing and family roles. 15. Inadequate childcare and creche facilities in soceith have left many women with little choice but to assume the role of home-makeer and care-provider. Statistics show that the number of children at the ate of 0-6 was 525,600 in 1993. However, only 5% of them were in government subsidised non-profit making chidcare centers, our of whom only 2% were fully subsidised. Unless the mothers can find some well paid jobs so that they can afford to employ domestic helpers or send the children to private childcare cntres, it is difficult for the mothers to work in society and be independent economically. Industrial Restrucuring 16. Economic laissez-faire policy has given rise to the belief that as long as ther is free trade and equal oppotunity, the Government should not intervene or regulate. In effect it means the freedom of the less privileged to be exploited. This can be shown by the industrial restructuring process Hong Kong has been undergoing since 1980s - from reliance on the manufacturing industies in the 1960s and 1970s to the increasing importance of service industries. It has affected thousands of industrial women workers who are unskilled or semi-skilled. The combined effects of economic restructuring in Hong Kong and China's policy of opening up the Special Economid Zones with ample supply of cheap labour haave caused an wave of Hong Kong manufacturing factories relocating to China. It is estimated that 80% of the manufacturing workers in Hong Kong has decreased from 900,000 in 1988 to 590,000 in 1993. Many workers in the labour intensive industries are women at their 30s and 40s who have worked in the industries for 10-20 years. It is not easy for them to chance jobs tor their skills are limited and not transferable to other industries. Many of them have become unemployed or part-time workers, while come have to accepted low-paid unskilled jobs. Sex Discrimination int the Work Place 17. Nor is ther any protection against sex discrimination in the work place. Job advertisements are free to specify gender requirements for specific positions. Most often than not they reflect the traditional sex-role division of labour, e.g. women are preferred for positions of secretary, clerk, shop assistants, etc., while men are preferred for management and skilled jobs. This is clearly at odds with the fact that number of women dollege graduates is comparable to men. Women still accdcount for an unproportionally small number of managerial and professional positions. In 1991, only 24.2% of managers and executive positions were occupied by the women. On the other hand, 68.6% of clerk were women. Large number of women taking up jobs which are low paid and unskilled. Women are also given less chance to be trained and hence less opportunity to be promoted. 18. In 1991, the medean income for men was HK$7,000 and the median incomen for women was HK$5,000, i.e. 77% that of men. Women in the 45-49 age group suffered the gratest display. The median income of those engaged as plant and machine operators and assemblers was 58% that of men. For those in managerial, administration and professional occupations, the median income of women was 83% that of men. 19. Employers are also free to set age requirements for jobs. In particular, service industries employ only young women(i.e. below 30) for customer service jobs. Certainly with this rigid requirement, local supply will not satisfy the demand for labour. Employers tehn complain of labour shortage and ask for importation of labour from China. Moreoverm married women are often discriminated against for their ginflexibility" in working overtime due to family responsibilities. 20. Employers who want to cut down the labour cost in their business and be free from the regulations of labour law, will choose to employ workers on a part-time basis or as out-workers. Majority of part-time and out-workers are women who receive low wages and re deprived of job security and legal protection. Accordeing to a research done by a Hong Kong women workers organizaion, the average monthly wage for the part-time workers is about HK$2,000. The numbers of part-time womenworkers and out-workers are increasing against the background of industrial restructuring and slower economic growth. Social Policies and Women 21. Women in Hong Kong are still in a disadvantaged social position while social changes have created new difficulties and hardship for women. The situation can be clearly shown in the social institutions of marriage and the family. In family, there is no equal power between male an female members as exemplified in the division of labour in domestic chores, child rearing and decision making. It is found that women mainly syoulder the responsibility if the birth control. The increase of family breakdowns especially with the increase of mistresses in mainland China, has caused a rising number of female single parents who have to face harsh social and financial situations. Family violence is also on the rise. 22. Despite the fact that women enjoy higher life expectancy than men, their physical and mental health is less satisfactory. Women's health condition is shown to be closely related to their disadvantaged positions in the family and in the work place. 23. As members of the society, women do not enjoy the same level of security and freedom as their male counterparts. They are vulnerable to the threat of sexual violence and harassment. 24. Social policies do not help much to improve the situation of women. The relativiely low social and economic status of women is reglected by the fact that they are the main recipients of social services in Hong Kong. However, the definition of family duties as gprivate problems" ane the philosophy that government syould only help those who cannot help themselves have meant that social services are provided on a minimal level. Unsurprisingly, women have shouldered the responsibility of child rearing and become the main carers of dependants in their families. Because of such burdens, women are often deprived of social participation and self-development. In view of their disadvantaged position in the family, the labour market and the social sphere in general, they are also more likely to be in poverty. Marriage and Family 25. In the past few decades, there have been changes of family size and patterns in Hong Kong. Number of births declined drastically from 86,75d1 in 1981 to 67,731 in 1990. Births per woman have also declined for all age groups. Family size has become smaller. In the last two decades, the number of families with six members or more dropped while that with two to five members increased steadily. The average size of the Hong Kong households have gone down from 3.9 persons in 1981 to 3.4 persons in 1991. People are getting married later. Nuclear family has become the norm. 26. Despite the changes mentioned above, it does not mean that more equal familial relationship or improved women's status in the family is achieved. Studies reveal that most families in Hong Kong maintain traditional gender roles which is characterised by man being the breadwinner and woman being the carer of the household. This is so even with families where both husband and wife have paid employment. 27. Women are still responsible for shouldering mojority of the household chores and childcare work. Men shoulder less of housework while making most of the major decisions of the family. 28. Many families still rely on relatives to relieve them from the heavy burden of childcare and housework. A study conducted in Tuen Mun, a gnew town" in the New Territories, found that 70% of the families which seek outside help sought help from the mother of the husband or of the wife. Such kind of inter-generation support between women is crucial in relieving yhoung women to work. 29. Traditional sex-role division of labour in the family are widely accepted by the women. In the same survey, 80% of the women interviewed think that taking care of the family is more important than developing their own career, 60% of the women agreed that women's place is in the home. In fact, due to traditional role definitionor practical difficulties, women are usually the ones to give up their jobs to take care of their families. 30. Many women in Hong Kong have been able to join the workforce, thanks to the foreign domestic helpers since the 1980s. However, families with domestic helpers are still a minority. In 1988, only 3.8% of families in Hong Kong had domestic helpers. Among the families earning less than HK$10,000, less than 0.5 had domestic helpers. However, while these Hong Kong women are being relieves of the heavy burden of housework, they are still responsible for supervising the domestic helpers. 31. The declining size of families, the changes in the mode of habijtation and the decrease in the number of children have not led to equality between men and women in the family. Even though women have been freed from traditional form of arranged marriage, they are under the infuluence of a new domestic ideology which emphasisi family as a place where members are kept from the cantamination of the bigger society and whier children are best raised. Women as the carers of families and children become the cornerstone of this ideology. This ideology has been consolidated and dispersed by the educational system and the mass media. As a result, women in general accept it as their fate and proper role. Birth and Birth Control 32. Like other developed countries, birth rate in Hong Kong has been declining stadily since early 1960s from about 35 per thousand population to 12 per thousand in 1990. The fertility rate, which reflects the propensity to give birth, has declined in all reproductive age groups. The drop is particularly obvious in the age group of 20-24, 25-29 and 30-34. The average fertility rate per women dropped from 2.0 in 1980 to 1.2 in 1990. 33. Lower fertility rate is the result of a combination of factors, including improving education level of women, women's women's increased participation in the labour force, change of social norms of child rearing from empahsis on quantity to quality and the resultant increased cost of child rearing. 34. Regarding decision making in birth giving, community surveys reveal that majority of couples ahve shared decision making. According to a survey conducted in Wanchai district in 1990, 72.1% of the wommen respondents decided the number of children together with their husbands, 17% decided on their own and 7.2% followed decisions made by husbands. 35. Birth control remains mainly a woman's responsibility. For example, there were 20,439 women clients attending the Family Planning Association's birth control clinics during the first three quarters (January-September) of 1994, as compared to only 715 men clients. 36. Abortion is one of the least talked about issues in Hong Kong. Despite moral forces which insist on birth rights and object the legalisation of abortion, legal abortions can be performed by the signatures of two doctors. it is therefore not difficult for owmen to seek legal abortions in hong Kong provided that they are able to afford the costs. For the economically less privileged, they may have to seek illegal abortions or to have the operation performed across the border in mainland China. However, quality of illegal abortions and facilities in the Mainland vary greatly and there were instances of malpractice leading to death or serious injuries to the women. 37. Available figures show that number of family violence cases is on the increase. As revealed by teh Harmony House which provides shelter for abused women, calls to the organization's hotline have increased dramatically from a monthly average of 92 in 1991 to 212 in 1992, while admissions to the shelter ahve been restricted by its physical capacity and remains at somewhere over 140 cases annually. These figures are still believed to be under reported since many victims refuse to seek help because of the traditional belief that wife beating is a family problem. many victims are reluctant to seek help from their relative or friends. 38. An analysis of client data given in the annual reports of the Harmony House in the recent years (i.e. 1989-90 to 1992-93) indicates that a yearly average of 121.5 out of the 143 cases (84.9%) involve women in their twenties or thirties with most of them (76 out of 143) aged betwween 31 and 40. This age pattern is not consistent with previous studies both in the West and in Hong Kong which suggested that a greater portion of battered women were in their twenties. The changing pattern may be a result of post ponement of marriage. On the other hand, the educational elvel of battered wives is not particularly low when compared with the Hong Kong average. Majority (56.6%) of battered wives are full-time housewives who are dependent on their husbands economically. 39. Among the victims, the number of new immigrant wives is on the increase. In 1991, wives who have resided in Hong Kong for less than two years accounted for 10% of the total number of admitted clients. The proportion increased to 14% in 1993, of whom 90% were from mainland China. the phenomenon canbe explained by the increasing economic activities across the border which provide ample job opportunities for the make working force. The new immigrant wives, lacking supportive network, are vulnerable to family violence. 40. Women's groups have criticised that the police do not have proper training and lack experience in handling family violence cases. Since 1993, pamphlets introducing social welfare and legal aid services for battered wives are displayed in police stations. Despite such arrangement, only 41% of battered wives were referred to family welfare agencies for assistance and only 43% were informed of their rights by police. 41. Statistics of sexual violence and sexual harassment are under-reported. Public attitude is still biased against victims of sex crimes. Quite often, the victims are believed to be partly responsible for sex crimes because of their suggestive gestures and clothing or because of their going out late at night. In many cases, victims are made to feel partly responsible and ashamed. Such perception is further reinforced by the mass media. Moreover, public education is poorly organised and women are not aware of the legal procedures and their rights. The police are not trained to be sensitive to sex crimes. This couples with the difficult experiencde victims have to go through in courts are enough to disourage them form reporting sex crimes to the police. 42. Number of rape cases reported increased fomr 75 in 1980 to 120 in 1989 and 111 in 1990. Only victims who reauest abortions were referred to the Family Planning Association, probably with counselling services provided. Unless the victims request, they are not cared for by any supportive services. There is no formal refferal system between the police and social welfare organizations. The discouragement legal procedures and the lack of victim support system also apply to victims of other sex crimes. 43. Although the legal definition of rape does not preclude rape within marriage in theory, the marriage law assumes the right of sexual intercourse in marriage. Neither the police nor the legal institutions will recognise rape within marriage. 44. In Hong Kong, there is not yet legislation governing sexual harassement which are left to be regulated at the initiative of privvate institutions as their own company policy. Without government promotion and regulation, few companies give consideration to the problem. Women and Health 45. Economic prosperity in Hong Kong in the past decades has led to improvements in the general living conditions and in the provision of health services. The average Hong Knog people now live a longer life than thirty years ago. In 1991, life expecatancy for women was 81 years old and for men 75. Life Expectancy of Hong Kong Population 1986 1991 2011(profected) female@ 79 81 83 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ male@@@@@@74 75 78 46. One significant improvement for women's health over the past few decades is the decline in maternal death. In 1955 for every thousand life births there were 1.17 maternal deaths. In 1990 this wernt down to 0.04. The infant mortality rate duting the same period also went down from 23.1 to 5.9 for every thousand life births. 47. Despite the apparent improvement of women's health in terms of llife expecatancy, women suffer more from illness than men. This is especially obvious in diseases related to the reprpoductive organs and in mental illness. Women's healath condition is shown to ve closely related to their disadvantaged positions in hthe family and the workforce. 48. In family, women's role as carers has significant impacat on their health. Domestic work is generally repetitive, monotonous, and isolated. Housework is also valued lowly by society. Because of this, housewives' selfimage is poor and they suffer mental health more than men. 49. In work, women also face specific health probllems. Women constitute maajority of the clerical work force. Health hazards related to white collar work are currently not protected by legislation and the hazards workers face at work have not recieved sufficient attention from the society and the government. In a 1991 study on occupaational health of typists, over half of the sample reported on pain obviouslyu related to their work, such as back pain, neck pain anad arm pain. 50. A large scale study carried out in 1985 by the community Healath Department and the Occupational Health Group of the Chhinese University of Hong Kong found that pregnant working women used medicine more often than housewives. Working women also suffer more form post-natal depression. The double burden of paid work and family responsibiliity was suggested to be an important cause. 51. The disadvantaged position of the lower class women can also be illustratead by their health condition. A survey in 1988 undertaken by the Chinese University of Hong Kong revealed that the ;mental health of women in the lower class was worse than that of men in the same class and women and men in the other classes. The study in 1990 also reported that patients with better education backgroudwere more satisfied ;with the health services they received. 52. In sum, the desadvantaged position of Hong Kong women has a direct impacat on their health conditions. Women's role as household carers, their double identity as working women and housewives and theri lack of resources are all factors contribuing to weomen's dissataisfactoru physical and mental health. Child Care Services @@ 53. The underlying assumption of social policy in Hong Kong that child care is primarity the responsibility of mothers has worked to restrict the expansion of subsidised child care services proided by the Government. Women who cannot affor d the expencaisve private child care services would be confined to the traditional role of housewives and boud by domestic chores. Their careera dn cosial lives may be affecated a sa result. Alternatively, they may take their children to relatively lower-priced child care centres, but there is no guarntee of the quality of care. It should be noted that the Government does not regulate the qualifications of the carers in private child care centres. Nor does it have a policy on kindergarten education which is privately run and expensove. It is onlyu in h this year's policy address (October 1994) that the Governor announced the Government's intention to improve kindergarten education by increasing funding and providing training for serving teachers. 54. Different types of chhild care services are provided for ;children of various ages in Hong Kong. As a rule, thry are short in supply. The following table shws the number of plaaces of all types of child care services combined as compared to the children population aged six and below. @@@@@@@@@@@@Provision of Child Care Services @@@@@@@ no. of places* Pop. aged 0-6(est.) no. of places/pop. 1986/87 @@@@ 280,031@@@@@584,100 @@@@@@@@4.8 % @@@@@@@@1991/92 @@@@@35,270@@@@@532,560 @@@@@@@@6.6 % @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@ *Including different types of services, government subvented ro privately@ run. @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@It can be seen that the supply of child care services has increased very slowly over the years. In fact, the "maternal deprivation" theory held by the Social Welfare Department, which alletes that the best care for a child comes from the mother and should be so unless circumstancaes prohibit, had been used to explain the policy of freezing any expansion of crech services (for infants aged two and below) between 1979 and 1989. Strong social pressures for changes have forced the Government to "thaw" the policy in 1989. 55. Most of the primary scholls in Hong Kong are half-day, either in the morning or in the afternoon, leaving the other session free and thus requires care. In August 1989, the Government agareed to subvent five polot schemes of "Comprehensive Child Carea Profects for Primary School Children" ran bay voluntary agencies. However, the subvention had ceased in August 1992 on the rationale that children and youth centres should organise thse profects as part of their services. Women and Education 56. One of the declared aims of the education policy in Hong Kong is to provide every child, male or female, witih equal oppportunity to education. In realitiy, equaliaty remains an ideal baoth in numerical terms and in sts;udents' lived experiences in schools. 57. The mine-year compulsory education implemented since 1978 made basic education for all children aged 6 to 15 a legal right and duty. The gender gap in primary and secondary levels has been closieng. Enrolement rates by age and sex, 1981-1991 @@@@@@@@@@@@ 1981 @@@@ 1991 @@@@@@@@@ Age Group female male @ female male @@@@@@@@@@ 3 - 5 @@@@82.7 @83.5@@@@@94.5 94.9@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 6 - 11 @@@@98.5 98.5 99.8 99.8 12 - 16 84.6 83.4 95.6 91.8 17 - 18 45.0 44.9 62.7 54.3 20 - 24 4.7 7.3 7.2 10.6@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ (1986) (1986) Female students are slightly more eaager than male to attend schools. However, gender-based disparity creeps in when places for higaher education continues to be scarcel In 1991 women made up 49 % of enrolment for tertiary non-degree courses and 43 % for tertiary degree courses. 58. Statistics fail to capture the differential schooling experinces of girls and boys. The formal carriciullum transmits traditional sex-biased messages which no longer reflect the division of labour in industrialised Hong Kong. The patterns of social relations in schools generally have the effect of silencing girls. 59. Sex stereotyping of females and males in fields of study persits. In grammar schools, science subjects continue to be male heaby and arts subjecats female heavy. Female made up 37 % of those enrolled in technical/vocational education at the secondary level in 1990, but 93 % of whom took commercial subjeacts and only 34 % took technical subjects in these institutes. 60. Similar boundaries exist at universitites although the trend is toward convergence. Female gains have been most visible in new fields of study, such as dental stjudies and business adminisstration, or when nursing is incorporated into medical school. However, fields which tend to lead to less lucrative jobs, e.g. arts and social sciences, have ;increasingly becom "feminised". Women and Housing 61. It is easy to overlook housing as a agender neutral issue. There is not at present policiy aiming at reducing gender inequality in relation to housing. In reality, given the abnormally high rent in Hong Kong, many women, especially single women and lone mothers, face housing problelms or suffer from problems arising from their living conditions. 62. Lone mothers are not given any priority in public housing. It takes seveerl years, sometimes more than 10, to get a public housing unit. Criteria for applying public housing on compassionate groud is so stringent that very few lone mothers can successfully be allocated to public housing through this channel. Consequently, they may have to rent rooms and share aprtment with others. Cases of secual harassment are not uncommon. Without a safe and peaceful place to live, it is difficult for the lone mothers and their chilren to rebuild theri new life. 63. At present there are only two temporary shelters for battered women in Hong Kong, each providing about 40 places. Ther is no other housing services for them after they leave thse shelters 64. Existing housing policy discriminates against the singletons. Single women are among those suffer more from this policy because of their relatively weak economic position and the vulnerabilitiy to sexual or indecent assault. It is until recent years that sinletons can apply for public housing units. However, the prpovision is extremely inadequate. 65. Although there is priority for the elderly to apply for public housing, the number of unitsallocated for ;the elderly laags far behind the rapidly growing elderly population. Among the population aged 75 and above, more than 60 % are female. In other words, women, especially poor women, are more likely than menm to face h ousing problelms. 66. Existing public housing policy considers onlyu family income as the major criteria. There is no specil consideration for social needs such as physical or mental disability. Women with such disability found great difficulties in solving their housing problemls. On the other hand, this also creates great difficulties for women taking care of family members with physical or mental diability, or with other chronic illnesses. Women and Poverty 67. The disadvantaged position or the absence of aposition of women in the labour market are significant factors contributing to women's povorty. In social security, women are more likely than men to be recipients of benefits. According to Government statistics in 1990, public assistance was paid out to the aged (72.4%), disabled persons(17.9%), and lone parent families (6%). Since women have longer life expectancey than men and female-headed families account for more than two-thirds of line parent families, it can be inferred than more women live in poverty and depend on public assistance fopr their livelihood. 68. In family, the peverty of married owmen is more invisible because the unequal allocation and access to family resources for women has been overlooked. 69. To understand poverty in its full mraning, it includes material deprivation as well as social deprivation. Research studies reveal than marital status an dthe number of children a woman has are the major factors affecting women's participation in the community. Social deprivation should be addressed by providing more child care and other support services for women so that they can devote more time for social relations and community participation. Political Participation of Women 70. Thought economically advanced, Hong Kong has been under-developed policically. A British colony, ceded from China late last century, power in Hong Kong has been concentrated in the hands of the Governor represneting the Crown. The Governor is advised by the Exco on all major policy matters. Members of the Exco are appointed by the Crown the the recommendations of the Governor. Meetings are held in camera. On the other hand, the LegCo was composed of senior government officers and appointed members until 1985. Appointed membters for the Exco and LegCo have been drawn from business and professional elite. 71. Hong Kong had its first gpartial" elections to the LegCo in 1985-gpartial" because only 24 out of 56 seats were returned by elections by a very limited franchise-12 seats of functional constituencies were dominated by peaple in the commercebusiness and the professinals, while 12 seats of electoral college were returned by members of the District Boards and the Municipal Councils. It was only in 1991 that we had 18 seats directly elected on a geographical basis and from universal suffrage. The LegCo of 1991-1995 is composed of government officials, appointed members, elected from geographical constituencies. The LegCo has recently amended the electoral ordinance so that in 1995,membership of the LEGCo will no longer include goverment officials and appointed members, while number of directly elected members will increase to 20, functional constituencies 30 and and electoral college 10. 72. On the regional and district level,Municipal Councils-the Urban Council and Regional Council-have executive power to look after hygiene matter, cultural and recreational amenities, etc. of the urban and rural areas respectively.The territory is divided into 18 districts each has its own District Board to give advice on district matters or policy matters with district concerns. Until recently, the Municipal Councils and the District Boards have been composed of appointed and elected members. Elections for the District Boards in 1994 and the Municipal Councils in 1995 will do away the appointment system. 73. Numerically, women ahve been under-represented in all the political institutions. The following are figures for the past decade: Executive Council Legislative Council women (%) men (%)@@women (%) men (%) 1985 2(14.3) 12(85.7) 5(10) 45(90) 1988@@@@4(28.6) 10(71.4) @ 11(19.6) 45(80.4) 1991@@@@3(21.4) 11(78.6) @@7(11.7) 53(88.3) Urban Council @@@@Regional Council @@@women (%) men (%)@@women (%) men (%) 1986@@@ 5(16.7) 25(83.3) -- --@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@1989 5(12.5) 35(87.5) 1(2.8) 35(97.2) 1991@@@@7(17.5) 33(82.5) @@1(2.8)@ 35(97.2) @@@@@District Boards @@@@@ women (%) men (%)@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@1985 38(10.3) 331(89.7) 1988@@@ 47(11.2) 373(88.8) 1991@@@ 42 (9.6) 394(90.4) 1994* 35(10) 311(90) *Because of the abolition of appointed seats, total number of seats is fewer than before 74. The gradual opening up of hte political system since the 1980s has helped politicize the hitherto "apolitical" population in Hong Kong. However, it should be noted that there has not been significant change over the years in the overall percentage of women councillors on the representative political bodies. Moreover, the higher up the power hierarchy, the lesser the number of women elected. For example, in 1991, of the 42 women district councillors, 25 were returned from elections, representing 9% of the total elected seats, while 18 were appointed by the government, representing 13 % of the total appointed seats. Of the seven women Legislative Councillorsw in 1991, only two of them were elected, the other five were appointed members. 75. The following are the nubmer of women candidates and their success rates as compared to men: @@@ no. of candidates(%) no. elected(%) success rate @@@ women men @@@ women men @@women men 1988@ 53(10) 440(90) @@ 27(10) 230(90)@51% @ 54%@ 1991@ 50(11) 423(89) @@ 25(9)@ 249(91)@50% @ 59% 1994@ 94(13) 660(87) @@ 35(10) 311(90)@36% @ 47%@ Legislative Council 1991 7(7.4) 87(92.6) 2(5) 37(95) 28.5% 42.5% 76. This shows an interesting phenomenon. On the one hand, women were appointed because of their ability and their record of community participation. On the other hand, while voter registration rate and voter turnout rate for women and men are similar for all levles of elections, few women want to run for elections and, when they do, they are less likely to be elected than their male counterparts. 77. Academics and social activists have triesd to explain the low level of women's participation in electoral politics in terms of inadequate provision of social services to relieve women from household chores, the status of women in society in general, the public image of women and women's own self-perception, etc. The above factors are, on different degrees, all contributing to the low level of women's participation in politics in Hong Kong. Specifically in Hong KOng, however, electoral politics ahve ben marked with explicit gender bias. 78. First, the system of functional constituencies in which LegCo seats are accorded to different commercial, industrial, and professional constituencies such as Chambers of Commerce, industrialists' federations, legal and medical practitioners' associations, accountants, engineers, architects and planners' professional bodies, teachers and social workers' trade unions, etc. There are only two seats for workers' unions and one seat each for elections from urban Council and tthe Regional Council. Given the fact that the business world is still dominated by men and that women are under-represented in the professions and in trade unions, it is no wonder that there have only been a handful of women candidates running for the functional constituencies since 1985. Among them, only one was successfully elected from the Urban Council - she herself ahd served the Council for nearly 30 years when elected to the LegCo in 1988. 79. The more fundamental flaws with the system of functional constituencies are that it restricts the elctoral franchise to a small population which is biased in favour of men; it also excludes half of the women population from the electoral process for housewives (who constitute about half of the adult female population) are not recognised to have "functions" and therefore accorded functional consituency seats. 80. Second, the election system and the status of women in the new Territories which is more complex and we shall devote the following section on it. Discrimination of Women in the New Territories 81. Geographically, Hong Kong is divided into three regions: Hong Kong Island, kowloon and the new Territories. While Hong Kong Island and Kowloon were ceded to Britain under separate treaties, the New Territories were leased for 99 years in 1898 (and hence the issue of resumption of Chinese sovereign in 1997). Because of this historical background, the British administration has treated the so-called "indigenous people" (i.e. Chinese who had already been inhabited in the New Territories when the British arrived) and their descendants differently from the rest of Hong Kong. Notably is the preservation of customaryu Chinese law, including land rights and political rights. 82. The New Territories Ordinance provides that in any court proceedings relating to land in the New territories, the court shall have power to recognise and enforce any Chinese custom or customary right affecting such land. In practice, "Chinese custom" is interpreted to mean the "Chinese custom" when the lease treaty was signed, i.e. customs of the Qing Dynasty in which land was only passed on the male line of the family. Women in the New Territories were denied the right to land succession when the owner of the land died intestate, though women in other parts of Hong Kong enjoy equal succession right as men to land. 83. Women's groups in Hong Kong have campaigned for years to have the outdated discriminating legislation repealed. Due to the relativelyu low status of womel 82. The New Territories Ordinance provides that in any court proceedings relating to land in the new Territories, the court shall have power to recognise and enforce any Chinese custom or customary right affecting such land. In parctice, "Chinese custom" is interpreted to mean the "Chinese custom" when the lease tereaty was signed, I.E. customs of the Qing Dynasty in which land was only passed on the male line of the family. Women in teh New Territories were denied the right to land succession when the owner of the land died intestate, though women in other parts of Hong Kong enjoy equal succession right as men to land. 83. Women's groups in HOng Kong have campaigned for years to ahve the outdated discriminating legislation repealed. Due to the realtively low status of women, particularly women of earlier generations, like the New Territories and the closely-knit village social life, few women have in the past dared speak out for their own rights. Several factors changed the situation. First, since the signing of the Sino-British Joint Declaration, there has witnessed a rapid politicisation of the society. A number of women's groups were formed with objectives to advance women's status and to promote sexual equality, as distinguished from ladies clubs or charitable organisations of the old times. Women's issues began to receive attention from social activists and, to a lesser extent, the general populace. Second, the introduction of 18 (out of 60) directly elected seats to the LegCo in late 1991 has fundamentally changed the operation of the LegCo towards a more responsive and vocal legislature. Many of the directly elected memebers were themselves active in the social movements and relatively sympathetic to the concerns and demands of the women's groups, thus providing a more favourable environment for women's issues. But the catalyst of change for land succession rights of New Territories women came from the government itself. n 84. In late 1993, the Houseing Authority, a quasi governmental body, admitted that the New Territories Ordinance applied to the whole of New Territories, including both the rural indigenous villages and the developed "new towns". It further admitted that the Housing Authority had overlooked the requirements of the Ordinance to apply for exemption from application of the section which recognises Chinese customary practice, i.e. succession along the male line only. When the new broke out, it caused public uproar. Over the years there have been rapid developments in the New Territories which now houses 42% of the population. Application of the discriminatory legislation to the residents in the "new towns" was never intended nor applied in practice. With the Housing Authority's revelation, it might lead to confusions as to the legal title to properties succeeded by female descendantse. Because of the serious implications, the Government was quick to introduce the "New Territories Land (Exemption) Bill" to exempt all non-rural land from the application of the New Territories Ordinance with retrospective effect. 85. Women's groups were also quick to take the opportunity to reiterate their demand for the repeal of discriminatory customary practice in the New Teerritories as a whole. A number of indigenous women villagers who were victims of the system also came out for their rights. Women's groups, after months of lobbying activities, were able to secure the support of the major political parties so that when a woman Councillor proposed amendment to the Bill with the effect of exempting New Territories land, rural and non-rural alike, from the application of Chinese custom, it was passed with majority support of the LegCo. During the eight months of deliberations by the LegCo and the lobbying by women's groups as well as village leaders, the public ahd also gone through a consciousness-raising process and come to realise that instances of sex discrimination still existed in Hong Kong. the landmark victory for women's right to land succession was fought in the face of well-organized lobbying activities, including lobbying both the Chinese and British governments, by the resourceful village leaders. 86. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the concept of land rights conferred on the male line is imbedded in government's policy as well. The "Small House Policy" introduced in the early 1970s to take care of the housing needs of the indigenous villagers adopted the "male line" concept and allows only the male descendants of the indigenous villagers to apply for land to build a small house once in one's life time. The policy wa preserved in the Sino-British JOint Declaration and the basic law subsequently promulgated by the Chinese government for the future Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. This was why when amendment was propsoed to remove Chinese customary practice from New Territories land, village leaders lobbied the Chinese government and threatened that the amendment violated the Basic Law and could be void after 1997. While public pressure is now on the Government to review the Small House Policy, it remains to be seen how matters relating to sex equality are dealt with betwen the Chinese and the British governments in teh transitional period and beyond. n 87. The low status of women in the New Territories was also exemplified in their election system. Traditionally, villages in the New Territories have their own representative system in which heads of households (invariably male with rare exceptions) are eligible to vote for their village representatives who then form the Rural Committees. Chairmen and Vice-chairmen of Rural Committees are ex-officio of District Boards in the New Territories and the Regional Council. Chairmen and Vice-chairmen of Rural Committees are also members of the Heung Yee Kuk occupies a functional constituency seat in the Legislative Council. Mojority of the women in the New Territories are left out of the whole representative system. 88. Women's groups are aligning themselves with human rights groups and sympathetic Legislatvei Councillors to challenge the legality of the discriminatory election system in the face of the Bill of Rights Ordinance which guarantees equal political rights between women and men and to demand the Government to put pressure on the Heung Yee Kuk to reform their system or else their representative seat be apolished. o Democratic Development and Women 89. We have seen that the opening up of election politics ahs not been met with similar increase in the number of women entering into politics. While it takes time to remove the impediments to women's participation as candidates and elected councillors, democratic development has already changed the nature of interest politics in Hong Kong. 90. A women's group in Hong Kong has recently researched inato the political behaviour of the LegCo since the introduction of directly elected members in 1991. It found that the initiative of the directly elected members on social issues, the development of party politics which exert influence on their appointed members who would otherwise be insulated from demands of the electorate, and the fact that appointed seats will be abolished in 1995 have all worked to give rise to a legislature responsive, more than ever, to social demands. Women's groups worked their way aby organised lobbying activities directed at the Legislative Councillors and political parties. Women's issues have received unprecedented attention in the public arena. Though women's groups have campaigned for years for the extension of the United Nations Convention on teh Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAEW) to Hong KOng, the Hong Kong aned British governments have not reacted positively. In December 1992, a directly electe4d woman Councillor, at the request of women's groups, moved a motion debate in teh LegCo urgning the British government to extend CEDAW to Hong Kong. The motion was carried with unanimous support from the LegCo. 91. In the face of public pressure, teh Hong KOng government had earlier set up an inter-departmental working group to look into the problem of sex discrimination in employment. On the eve of the LegCo motio debate, the Working Group released its findings asserting that discrimination did not exist. The unanimous support for the extension of CEDAW to HOng Kong and the concerns raised aby Legislative Councillors about sexual inequality in HOng KOng put pressure on the Government. Though widely criticised as a delaying tactic, the Government subsequently undertook to consult the public by way of a Green Paper which was published nearly a year after the LegCo debate. 92. During the consultaion period, feminist and grasroots women's groups moined forces in coalition to demand for the extension of CEDAW and the setting up of a Women's Commission to promote women's rights and to adjudicate on cases of discrimination. 93. In June 1994, the Governxment finally agreed to recommend to the British government the extension of CEDAW to Hong Kong, the ratification of which requires the agreement between teh British and the Chinese governemtns. Moreover, the Government has agreed to make laws prohibiting sex discrimination and to set up a statutory Equal Opportunities Commission with independent secretariat to promote sex equality, to give advice to both the victims of discrimination and individuals or firms which discriinate. The proposed Commission does not ahve power of adjudication, nor does its terms of reference include advice on public policies. Nevertheless, it is a step forward in the elimination of the gender gap. 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